Chapter One
Election violence is one of the
challenges that face the country’s electoral system since independence. The
most ugly election violence in Nigeria is that of 2011 Election
violence which
left an indelible mark in the country’s democratic experience. Despite the
promise by the immediate former president Good luck Jonathan to deal with the
perpetrators of election violence there are some part of the country that have
faced the challenges which led to the lost of live and properties.
This research work titled “Election and
Electoral violence in Nigeria: A case study of 2015 general election”, will
attempt to provide an in-depth explanation concerning the 2015 general Election
in Nigeria.
It is of paramount importance to note and
understand that election violence Is not a new phenomenon in Nigeria since from
the inception of our independence in 1960, and this election violence is said
to emerge when the conditions guiding the conduct of election are neglected and
ignored like the recent 28th of march and 11th of April
general election.
Notwithstanding, this important research
would shed light in understanding this topic of research as well as entire work
by providing a well defined explanation about the scenario of this election
violence as well as the factors that caused the election violence, the solution
and remedy to this problem of election violence which will help to reduce the
rate of violence in the area and the country as a whole.
Election violence as actually widened in Nigeria,
this is due to the negligence attitude of our leaders who deprived the right of
almost all the citizens particularly during election by buying their vote which
in turn provoked some specific set of people and made the paradigm of politics
a do or die affairs which would result to the violence of whatever nature.
It is very significant to note that this
election violence can be maintained by ignoring the aspiration of these leaders
especially before, during and after election and focus on making the right
choice because they have no hope for the future and to ignore these leaders is
a serious problem because of the money politics when our people easily
understand as a result of the incessant poverty manifested on them by these
leaders.
Statement of research problem
This research work examined the election
violence that erupted pre, during and post election violence of 2015 general
election. As such emphasis would be made on answering questions such as:
i. What are the factors
that caused the 2015 general election violence in Nigeria?
ii. To what extent do
the citizens participate in the violence?
iii. What are the
effect on the citizens and the nation?
iv. What are the
possible solutions?
Objectives of the study
i. To find out the
factors that caused this recent 2015 general election violence in Nigeria.
ii. To critically
examined the reasons why citizens participate in the violence
iii. To find out the
negative effects to the citizens and Nation as a whole so as to minimize the
violence.
iv. To find out the
possible solution to the violence
Significance of the study
The significance of
this topic of research lies in providing a sizable explanation and it is
consequence. That is election violence, thereby helping and exposing the
leaders to have some insight about the subject as well as the topic under discussion;
Election and electoral violence.
It is noteworthy, to understand that
this topic of research will help in many ways because it focuses in providing
an in-depth explanation even though it is a hard- to- comprehend phenomenon
because of what constitute human behavior as well as human nature in general
and with this, it would seriously offered a considerable explanation about the
proposed topic of research.
Scope and limitations of the study
This research work covered election
violence that occurred before, during and after election violence of 2015
general election, which is the main concern of the topic.
The limitations encountered in this
research are as follows:
i)
Low return of questionnaire by the
respondents.
ii)
Low level of literacy among the
respondents and
iii)
Financial problem to print out the
questionnaire.
With
all these limitations that I have encountered in my research, I have deal with
the problem through collecting the questionnaire of those that they have
through with it in a specific time due to a time limit, by helping those that
cannot be able to read the question as well as borrowing money from my friend.
Methodology Of The Study
The method used in data collection is both
primary and secondary sources of data collection. This involves questionnaire
administration. Sampling would be used in this research in order to save time
for the purpose of this cluster sampling would be used. Similarly, the second
sources include text book, internet materials, newspapers, reports and other
useful write-ups.
Definition of terms
1)
Election: is a formal decision making
process by which a population chooses individual to hold public office.
Election has been the usual mechanism by representative democracy has operated
since the 17th century (Ball, 1977:125)
2)
Violence: According to Anifowese (1982:1)
“ Serve as a catch- all for every
variety of protest, militancy, coercion, destruction, or muscle- flexing which
a given observer happens to fear or condemn.
3)
Election violence: It includes all sort
of riots, demonstrations, party clashes, political assassinations, looting,
arson, thuggery, kidnapping e.t.c. Spontaneous or not, which occur before,
during and after election (Ilufoye 2006:55)
Chapter Outline
This research work contains four chapters.
Chapter one contains the general introduction or background of the study,
statement of the research problem, objective of the study, significant of the
study, scope and limitation of the study, methodology of the study and chapter
outline.
Chapter two contains literature review
of the study and theoretical frame work.
Chapter three contains Electoral
Violence In The 2015 Genaral Elections In Nigeria and Data analysis of the
study.
Chapter four contains the summary,
conclusion and recommendations.
Chapter Two
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL
FRAME WORK.
2.1 The Concept of Election
What
is election? perhaps this is the question to ask when an important issue like
election is being addressed. In the current edition of the international
encyclopedia of social science vol. 5, election is defined as one procedure of
aggregating preferences of a particular kind. The two features of this
definition are procedure and preferences. By procedure, the concept is used
described a special way of doing something. Preference connotes choice
between alternatives
Election can be defined as the means
by which people choose and exercise some degree of control over their
representatives (Ball, 1977:125)
Election can also, be described as a
procedure that allows members of an organization or community to choose
representatives who will hold positions of authority within it. The most
important election is to select the leaders of Local, State and National
governments (1993-1998 micro soft corporation).
During elections the electorate is
given the opportunity to choose between alternative programs of contestants.
Election also promote public accountability. “ The threat of defeat at the
polls exerts pressure on those in power to conduct themselves in a responsible
manner and take account of popular interest and
wishes when they make their decisions” (op cit).
There is no one accepted procedure of
election. In ancient Greece various types of procedure were used. These include
voting by show of hands, written votes and ballots. In the Roman Republic
elections of principal officers was by a plurality of “ tribes” or “centuries”.
In the medieval church, the election of superiors was by a small electorate
consisting of those next in rank. With the emergence of liberal democracy in
the seventeenth century in western Europe, the concept of election took new
meaning anchored on the principles of consent, franchise and representation (op
cit).
2.2
Electoral process
Though the electoral system of any
political system of any political system is to a very large extent dependent on
the form of government and it is political complexion, the actual electoral
processes in most political systems include the following: registration of
voters, nomination of candidates and political campaign.( Introduction to
politics p.g 189)
1)
Registration of voters : Invariably, in almost all political systems, the right
to participate in the political process is exclusively reserved to the
citizens. One form of such participation is voting during national and local
elections. One of the necessary procedures for participation in the electoral
process involves the registration of voters. This is a process by which the
names of eligible voters are compiled and readied for elections. In most
countries, franchise (the right to vote), is extended only to adult citizens,
who are eighteen years and above. To be sure, the idea of one man, one vote is
a recent phenomenon in most African state. In Nigeria, Muslim’s women were only
able to exercise this during the 1979 general elections.
2)
Nomination of candidate: Another important procedures is the nomination of
candidates. This is a process by which aspirant for political offices are made
available for recruitment. There are varied patterns of nomination procedures.
For instance, in mobilization political system, there is a single list of
candidates selected in advance by the party. There is no question of
alternative candidates or choice. The screening of candidates is done by the
party leadership. As there is no competitive list to choose from, all that the
voter has to do is to affirm or reject the list of candidates approved by the
party.
3)
political campaign: One of the final process that is undertaken before the
actual voting takes place is the political campaigns. Political campaign serves
various purpose in several political systems. Undoubtedly, it is during the
electoral campaign periods that most political parties and political leaders
make sustained efforts to enlarge their stock of legitimacy, by
i)
Recounting their performances and achievements.
ii)
Raising debates on fundamental, domestic and foreign issues.
iii)
initiating new programs and strategies to tackle old and new problems.
iv)
Seeking to know their mandate (Introduction to politics, p.g 193)
2.3 Types
of Election
Direct and Indirect Election
In
a Direct Election individuals collectively choose leaders or policies. The
often cited example of Direct Election is classical Greece where adult male
citizens meet to elect their leaders. Slaves and women were not allowed to
participate. Direct election is possible where the electorate is small in size.
In the case of indirect election there
is more than one vote or decision separating the individual voter from the
collective outcome. A good example of indirect election is that of the office
of the president of the United State of America. The U.S.A is elected by an
electoral collage, which is composed of electors equal to the whole number of
Senators and representatives to which the state may e entitled in congress.
Open
and Secret ballot
An
open ballot system operates where the electorates are allowed to vote openly.
Argument in favor of the open ballot is that the duty of voting, like any other
public duty should be performed under the eye and criticism of the public
(mill, 1910). The two main arguments for open ballot are that of accountability
and commitment (pitkin, 1967). Openness is necessary condition of
accountability. As observed by pitkin (op cit) “If we wish to hold people
accountable for the way in which they cast their vote, we obviously need to
know how it has been cast”. Mill (op cit) argues that open ballot encourages
public – spirited voting. The argument for commitment is that the decision of
an electorate to cast a vote in favor of a particular party platform express a
performance for that package of policies over any other package and legitimizes
it is implementation. The electorate is seen to be committed to those policies,
in the sense that he or she is not entitled to complain when they are carried
out (op cit)
The open ballot system was used in
the Local Government election of December 1990 in Nigeria. The modalities for
the system are as follows:
i)
All registered voters whose names
were on the voters whose names were on the voters ‘ card were accredited in there different polling stations between 8
a. m and 11 a.m. The purpose is to ensure that only persons who are eligible to
vote are allowed to do so and at the right polling stations.
ii)
All voters’ cards were stamped, signed at the back and such details
as the date, type of election and code number were recorded.
iii)
The right thumbs of the voter were marked.
iv Accreditation ends at 11:00 a.m and
those who come after that time will not accredited
v)
Voting commenced at 12:00 noon, voting procedure were explained to accredited
voters
vi.
Voting commenced at 12:00 p.m. The accredited voters were requested to line up
in front of the posters carrying the portraits of the candidates of their
choice.
vii.
The counting of the numbers of voters in the quick one by one must be made
loudly.
Viii.
Election of councilors were conducted first, and then followed by that of
chairman.
ix.
In areas of the country where it is proved that the culture does not allow men
and women mingling in a queue, separate queues were allowed for men and women.
x.
The result of the poll at the polling station were signed by the presiding
officers and endorsed by the polling agent representing the candidates ( Nwosu,
1990).
Partisan and
Non partisan Election
Partisan Election are fought and conducted along political party lines.
Candidates are sponsored by their political parties, and they carry political
party labels. In non- partisan elections, the assumption that political parties
engage in higher degrees of party activities for the election is absent. The
ballot boxes do not carry party labels.
In practice, however, some formally partisan forms of Elections in the
U.S.A, turn out to be non- partisan while some legally and formally non-
partisan elections turn out to be partisan and competitive elections. It is
important to note that in partisan elections there are parties, while there are
no parties involved in non- partisan elections.
Proxy
Election
The
general practice at election has been for voters to report at polling stations
in their constituency, satisfy the electoral officials that they are not
impersonating anyone, and vote. Voting by proxy is another thing altogether. In
waives the requirement for the voter to be present; and permits armed forces
personnel, diplomats and sometimes well- defined citizens abroad, to cast their
votes by mailing them or submitting them to designated officials of the states’
diplomatic or military missions abroad.
Multi-
member/Single- member constituency Elections:
In Multi-member constituency elections, the political community is
divided in to electoral constituencies, districts or wards. These are of fairly
equal size population- wise.
Where each electoral constituency elects more than one representative,
the system is describe as single member constituency electoral type.(A.A Ujo,
Understanding election in p.g 11-16)
2.4 Concept of Free and Fair Election
An essential feature of election in a democratic system of government is
that it should be free and fair. Mackenzie (1967) identifies four conditions of
a free and fair election. These are independent judiciary to interpret
electoral laws, an honest competent non- partisan administration to manage
elections, a developed system of political parties well organized to put their
policies, traditions and teams of conditions before the elections as
alternatives between which to choose, and a general acceptance throughout the
political community of certain rather vague rules of the game, which limit the
struggle for power because of some unspoken sentiment that if the rules are not
observed more or less faithfully the game itself will disappear amid the
wreckage of the whole system.
As Mackenzie rightly observed, the four candidate idea types. They
cannot be completely realized anywhere but existing systems can be analyzed in
relation to them.(op cit).
Dundas was of the opinion that the issues of free and fair or what we
referred to as the “best practice” could be addressed by formulating the
following questions.
i. Is the legal framework adequate to ensure
that the organization of free and fair multi party elections be achieved in a
given situation?
ii. Has the full potential to contribute to
the holding of free and fair multi party election been reflected in the
provision of the constitution and those of electoral laws?
iii. Are the election safeguards
satisfactorily balanced with facilitation measures in place and aimed at
delivering high quality election services at cost effective levels?(A.A Ujo
understanding election in Nigeria p.g 2-3)
2.5
The concept of Election violence
Election violence is generally refers to the violence that is directly
or indirectly connected to protest against an election. This could be as a result
of the violation of the rules of election such as election rigging,
intimidation and use of force and coercion during the conduct of election.(Sabo
Bako 2008)
According to him Election can be classified into three (3) broad
categories which are:
A) Pre-
electoral violence:
This occurs mainly at the
stage of party primaries, when contestants from the same political party jostle
to for tickets to become the party flag bearers. Experience has shown that at
this stage, thuggery, arson, shooting and maiming are deployed to achieve a
particular objective.
B) Violence
during Election:
The pattern of violence at this election stage is not remarkably
different. In addition to the methods mentioned above, snatching of ballot
boxes, and papers, kidnapping and abduction of electoral officers and party
agents forcefully preventing voters from exercising their franchise, forcing
electoral officers to alter or deface result or result sheets.
B) Post
Election violence:
This type of violence manifested I the same manner as pre- election
violence and usually perpetrated often times by shooting , looting, arson, and
wanton destruction of lives and properties usually perpetrated by members of a
political party that did not win the election.
2.6 FACTORS
ENHANCING ELECTORAL VIOLENCE IN NIGERIA
Sabo Bako, in his book socio-economic reforms and political development
in Nigeria gave a host factor explains electoral violence in Nigeria. These
factors are complex, multi-causal and perhaps in exhaustive. They range from
the nature of the Nigerian politics, its history and the character of its elites.
For a better understanding, we need to properly disaggregate these factors.
Poor electoral administration is one of the causes of electoral violence
in Nigeria. The administration of elections in Nigeria over the years is
nothing to write home about. There are inadequate control mechanisms, poor
logistics, and bad level of preparation coupled with the insincerity of the electoral
officers. With the absence of adequate control mechanism, elections can be
manipulated through electoral fraud and/ or through the rules of the game that
reduce the chance for fairness. For example, in 1983,(kufoye, 2007:630) it was
discovered that the rigging was done even before the election. Election
register was inflated. Therefore, there is the need for electoral
administration to be entrusted to a truly independent electoral commission and
one with sufficient time and material means to conduct it is business
successfully. Such mechanisms are needed to ensure the fairness of the process
and prevent unnecessary violence.
Political intolerance and the tendency to see election as a do or die
affair also contribute to electoral violence in Nigeria. To Nigerian political
elite, politics is a game that most won at all cost. Therefore, there is a
tendency among losers even in those elections that are widely seen as
transparent, to reject the verdict of the ballot box, it is a belief according
to Ntaija (2002) that is reinforced by a widely conception of electoral outcome
of zero-sum game in which the winner get everything while the losers are denied
not only access to state power and resources, but also their functional right
as a human beings. The sit-tight syndrome perpetuated by the incumbent sees no
life beyond the presidential villa, losers are concerned about being vulnerable
on so many fronts that they uncomfortable with contemplating life after
election.
Another factor that can be identified as an explanatory variable
impeding the conduct of free and fair elections in Nigeria is the mass poverty
of the people caused by the deepening crises under development. Consequently,
Nigeria has been reduced to the horribly painful and undignifying status of
being the 13th poorest country to live in the world, along a scale
of what the United Nation called the human suffering index (U.N report 2006).
Under development and neo colonialism have reduced the average Nigerian to a
popular who can easily be brought over with a few Naira. (Sabo
Bako(socio-economic reforms and political development in Nigeria, page 79).
2.7.
Impact of Electoral violence on Democratic Stability in Nigeria.
Electoral violence has caused
more harm than good to the democratic stability in Nigeria. This recurrent
electoral violence had undoubtedly stunted the growth of democratic values,
attitudes and institution in the country. For example, every attempt at democratizing
the polity has always necessitated the creation of new structures such as
political parties, electoral commissions, state and national legislatures and
the like. There is no better testimony to the dysfunction of this scenario than
the fiasco that passes for governance by the various arms of government at
Local, state and national level since the inception of the forth republic. The
memory of past electoral mayhems however does not encourage contenders to
believe that his opponents will not subvert the process of election in order to
win. Thus, trust and tolerance, which are basic tenets of democratic process,
seem to have been dispensed with the electorate. Another impact to Nigeria
democratic stability is the loss of faith engendered in the democratic process
by electoral violence.
One would be saying the obvious
to state that uncontrolled electoral violence has the potential of truncating
democratic stability in Nigeria. More so, given the quick sand of our politics,
electoral violence is a luxury we can ill afford. A corollary to this is the
sabotaging of the will of the electorate at the elections. May lead to a
situation where leaders that emerge are elected by the majority because the
majority have fears for their lives will not go near the electoral process,
electoral violence has led to the death of several persons especially men of
proven integrity and great intellectual capabilities
Another impact of electoral violence to the democratic stability in
Nigeria is the mystification of force and promotion of lawlessness. Those who
do not engage in these acts of violence are made to feel hopeless, helpless and
intimidated by the sheer use of unnecessary force and these lead to loss of
self confidence and a sense of inadequacy.
Electoral violence has created room for the emergence of incompetent
persons who occupy vital electoral positions by reason of the use of brute
force and foist upon the people mediocrity. Due to the fact that these products
of electoral violence are basically, mediocre they were not able to deliver the
Electoral goodies as expected by
the masses that “Elected” them in to office. Thus, the masses end up being the
victim of mal- administration. This act does not promote the democratic
stability of Nigeria. Electoral violence also restrain competent and very
qualified persons from contesting elections in the country for fear of being
assassinated, maimed or kidnapped.(sabo Bako, socio economic reforms and political
development in Nigeria. P.g 9-10).
2.8
Theoretical Framework
This research work would be conducted within the frame work of
psychological theory. Psychology studies human behavior by reference to the
individual. Accordingly, Political scientists who employ the psychological
approach seek to investigate the impact of personality and other psychological
variables such as motivation, perception and attitude on politics. For
instance, studies for public opinion, voting behavior and socialization have
often involved the use of psychological data of citizens. This theory was used
to analyze the factors that caused the 2015 general election violence, because
this theory focus on the perception of human being on politics and how people
focus on individual as a voter, revolutionary, party member, rioter or
perpetrator.
Psychological approach in the study of political science target the “
software”, learned faulty behaviors and habits, along with damaging words,
thoughts, interpretations, and feedback that direct strategies for daily
living.
The assumptions of this theory is that “many disorder result from
mental, behavioral and social factors, such as personal experiences, traumas,
conflicts and environmental conditions”.
Psychological treatments attempt to change behaviors, thoughts and
thought process that impair daily living, thereby improving functioning
practiced by clinical psychological treatments include four types of psychotherapy.
I)
Psychodynamic therapy:
This type of
psychological treatment view any problems of the societies as the symptoms of
unresolved traumas and conflicts.
It focus on attempt
to resolve conflicts between personal needs and social requirements. It
approach problems by understanding and making more conscious the relationship
between overt problems and the unresolved, internal conflicts that caused them,
people can work through problems to reach in effective solution.
ii. Behavioral therapy:
It views any problems of the societies as the
result of learned, self defeating behaviors. It also focus on observable
behaviors and conditions that sustain unhealthy behavior. It also approach the
problems by applying the principles of conditioning and re-enforcement, people
can learn healthy behaviors.
iii. Cognitive therapy:
It also view
political problems as a result of what we think (cognitive content) and how we
think(cognitive process), including distorted view of situation and self,
faulty reasoning, and poor problem solving. It also focus that thought and
thought processes causes problematic emotions and behaviors. The therapy
approach the political problems by reconfiguring damaging thinking patterns,
people can learn healthy, realistic ways of thinking about life experiences.
iv. Existential/ Humanistic
therapy:
It view political
as a result of what we think (cognitive content) and how we thank (cognitive
process) including distorted view of situation and self, faulty reasoning, and
poor problem solving. It focus on ways to unite mind and body, that is, the
whole persons, and this release the potential for greater levels of performance
and greater richness of experience.
The therapy approach
the political problems by examining experiences in current life situations,
people can develop their individuality and how to realize their full potential.
As a result of this, this research
employed this theory in order to explain the election violence, it is causes as
well as the remedy of 2015 general election violence in Nigeria.
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